22 May, 2021
While Boston might not be considered the concrete jungle, the material composes much of the skyline with buildings of enormous scale. Boston architects of the 20th century aimed to increased urbanization and attract city dwellers after a loss of manufacturing jobs and flight to the suburbs. After decades of criticism and threats of demolition, today's designers are rebranding the style to keep it historically significant.
Named after “beton brut”, or raw concrete, brutalism pays particular attention to weight, density, and mass. Its impressive strength provides strength and durability to produce buildings where “form follows function”. While many buildings of the early 20th century emphasized minimalism, brutalism celebrates abundance. It can also be characterized as massive, monolithic, and blocky.
The brutalist movement emerged in Europe after WWII with an unprecedented need for urban renewal. Concrete's availability and affordability made it suitable for large-scale urban renewal projects, and the style became associated with progressive housing solutions. It shares many characteristics of mid-century-modern functional designs that focused on simplicity, structure, and mass production.
The brutalist movement emerged in Europe after WWII with an unprecedented need for urban renewal. Concrete's availability and affordability made it suitable for large-scale urban renewal projects, and the style became associated with progressive housing solutions. It shares many characteristics of mid-century-modern functional designs that focused on simplicity, structure, and mass production.
American architects were inspired by Europe’s innovation in building materials, and the style was used for economic revival. The U.S. Housing Act of 1949 allocated federal funds to cities in attempt to clear crime-ridden slums and make way for housing, government buildings, and businesses. The process of urban renewable saw these areas being sold to private developers to create public housing. Between 1950 and 1970, existing communities were swept away to make room for concrete buildings of unprecedented extent.
The result was public outcry and criticism of both the brutalist style and urban renewal. Many thought the buildings appeared austere and unwelcoming, resulting in a decline in the 1970s. In 2006, a group of Boston architects rebranded the style as “Heroic” in an effort to preserve the movement. They highlight the complexity out of which the style grew and the controversy post construction; like heroes, they stood powerful and strong while serving the public.
Critics argue that the austere, dark nature of the buildings gives a sense of totalitarianism. However, the brutalist movement in Boston represents the ideas of the Post World War II period by creating buildings that allude to transparency and honesty in their form
and construction; they represent optimism and a move towards urban renewal. The buildings presented in this paper sought to serve the public and build an attractive city.
and construction; they represent optimism and a move towards urban renewal. The buildings presented in this paper sought to serve the public and build an attractive city.
Many brutalist buildings targeted at-risk communities, one of them being Madison Park High School located on Malcolm X Blvd. In 1968, the city of Boston enacted the Campus High School Renewal Project to create a campus-type high school complex in Lower Roxbury. The goals were community wide, and projects ranged from schools, recreational facilities, transportation, and housing. The image below shows the project plan.
Plan of Urban Renewal Area in Roxbury, MA
Part of the project included 35 acres for the high school to accommodate 5,500 students grades 9-12. Marcel Breuer was selected as the architect and was major proponent of the international style. A student of the Bauhaus, he used technology and materials of the industrial age in an expressive way. After graduating Harvard University, he worked with Gropius in Cambridge to bring the International Style to New England.
The high school is the core to the project. It includes a theater, art center, and gymnasium that are open to all members of the public. It is similar to a college campus in that program is separated by subject and connected by underground tunnels, bridges, and courtyards. The site sits on a base of concrete that responds to the natural topography with steps, ramps, and courtyards; there are several green spaces to break up the mass. The entrance is marked by eight columns, serving both as an overhang and protection against weather. The grandeur of the entry way gives a sense of importance.
The momumentality of the building is characteristic of brutalist design because it is a symbol of importance that represents the community. The Malcolm X façade includes an expanse of sunken windows (figure to the right), which is permitted by the strength of the concrete. This not only shapes the interior lighting scheme and views, it also gives a sense of transparency from the street to the interior, connecting the community. In this example, brutalist architecture was used in a city-funded urban redevelopment program, and concrete served as an economical material that could stretch the funds to provide a space the community desperately needed.
Sunken Window Façade
Brutalism celebrates innovation in building materials; architects were able to build impressive skyscrapers that represent the push for city growth. One example of this is 177 Huntington Ave. Located on the Christian Science Center Plaza, the 26-story office building originally served as the administrative building for the Church. Added in 1972, it was designed by Yugoslavian architect Araldo Cossutta who studied at Ecole des Beaux Arts and Harvard University before working closely with Le Corbusier and joining I.M. Pei & Associates. His practice focused mainly on offices and urban redevelopment.
Cossutta’s design goals were order, repetition, and monumentality. Calling on his education in Paris and Pei’s style of “classic modernism,” he admired the engineering and architecture of ancient Rome and Greece. He particularly liked concrete with exposed structural members and variety of hues, breaking from conventional curtain wall construction.
Mother Church and Christian Science Plaza in the 1930s
The Administrative Building was the last addition to the Christian Science Center Plaza. The Original Mother Church was built in 1894 and originally surrounded by relatively quiet city streets and an open field (figure to the left). It was clear to Cossutta that the Church would get swallowed by the erecting skyscrapers. This resulted in the vast horizontal landscape of the reflecting pool contrasting with the height of the Administrative Building that could be seen from a distance and competed with its neighbors like the Prudential Tower.
The ground floor includes reception and lounge areas, and the upper floors house offices and meeting rooms. The long-side of the façade features a gridded display of sunken square windows, and the short-side facades are polygonal towers to house circulation that appears slightly gapped from the rest of the building. The primary entrance off Belvedere Street is marked by a two-story arch with a curved overhang.
The strength of the concrete is celebrated by the height and grandeur of the tower. It contrasts the ornamented and historical design of the Mother Church, but both buildings are monumental in different ways. In a time of urban renewal, architects utilized material innovations by creating massive structures. The scale and monumentality of the Administrative Building represents optimism in city expansion by using concrete to create a public space. The double-height lobby and large gridded windows create light-filled spaces throughout the building, giving a sense of transparency from the inside to out.
Primary Entrance off Massachusetts Ave
Many brutalist buildings are the result of government funded projects, and concrete was used due to its affordability. One of the most well-known examples of brutalist architecture in the world is Boston City Hall. Built in 1962 and designed by Kallmann McKinnell & Knowles, the goal was to create a place to house government affairs with vast open spaces for the public. The intent was to create a bold statement of monumentality. They took inspiration from modern architects like Le Corbusier and Sainte Marie de La Tourette, as well as Renaissance Italian townhalls.
Boston City Hall from The Government Center Plaza
Boston City Hall from The Government Center Plaza
Much of the program can be determined from the exterior. The lowest portion consists largely of departments for public access. In this section, the brick from the plaza translates to the façade and interior; this relates to the historic architecture of Boston and the use of brick as a building material. The middle floors house public officials; there are several protrusions that draw attention and make them seem important by breaking up patterns and distinguishing it from other programs. A relationship is formed between the government and public by creating overhangs and large windows. In addition, there is a courtyard that can be accessed by the public, and the path passes beneath this program. The upper floors are office spaces and departments not regularly visited by the public. This is characterized by regularly placed windows and concrete fins. The image to the left diagrams the separation of program.
Boston City Hall is one of the most loved and hated buildings in the world. Architects admire its spatial awareness and depth. It defines bureaucratic control through its heavy concrete overhangs and regulated fins. Proponents believe the design controls the urban space while holding true its sense of monumentality. It represents a transparent and honest form of government; one that is straight forward. Its scale gives light to the newly appreciated civic momumentality and importance in the Post World War II period. It is a symbol of how brutalism was a major part of defining Boston’s urban landscape and renewal.
Neighboring Boston City Hall is the Government Service Center. It was designed by Paul Rudolph, an American architect who studied at Alabama Polytechnic Institute and Harvard Graduate School of Design where he worked with Walter Gropius. He sat on the board of Yale’s University School of Architecture and designed one of the first brutalist buildings in America, the Yale Art and Architecture Building. He is known for his employment of unfinished concrete and spatial complexity. Him and his partner, Ralph Twitchell developed the Sarasota School Style, which adapts the International Style to the Florida climate.
In 1962, the city began demolition of the West End for urban renewal. The existing neighborhood housed residents who could not afford to live on prestigious Beacon Hill. In the early 19th century, the area became a hot spot for the abolitionist movement; wealthier residents moved to the suburbs while immigrants moved in to create one of Boston’s most diverse neighborhoods. The site also contained Scollay Square, an economic center for Boston. The National Housing Act of 1934 pushed for redevelopment in these areas, which made many view them as the slums. The construction of The Government Service Center displaced these residents. The figure to the right shows a plan for demolition.
Plan of Site Prior to Demolition
Rudolph was less concerned with making aesthetically pleasing buildings as he was with their meaning. The use of raw and highly textured concrete is an expression of the labor and people who built the building, as well as the honestly of civic and government life. In addition, the rough surface masks the effects of weather, one of the downfalls of the brutalist style.
Similar to Boston City Hall, the overhangs, protrusions, and expansive glass façade create a relationship between the government officials and the public by expanding above the sidewalk and shaping views both inward and outward. Rudolph also made various open spaces for the public on New Chardon Street. The more popular of the two features green spaces with benches and circulation; it is popular in the summer months as an escape from the sun.
Rudoplph’s use of highly textured concrete, exposed structural elements, and complex for display how brutalist architects aim to serve the public and create a transparency between the people and the government. The figure below shows a street view and give a sense of scale.
Façade off Stanhope Street
Brutalism was not only used in government-funded projects. Boston University Law Tower is an example of how architects used this style in a variety of building types. Built in 1962, the 18-story tower was designed by Spanish architect Joseph Lluis Sert, who was involved in several urban planning and development projects. He studied at the School of Architecture in Barcelona and worked there, Paris, and New York City before opening a studio in Cambridge in 1958. Many characteristics of his craft integrate the natural landscape with ties to Mediterranean styles.
Boston University Law School from Storrow Drive
The facades are made up of gridded windows with green and red panel accents. It is asymmetrical, and parts are seemingly pushed and pulled. The top of the tower also has irregular extrusions. The building has recently undergone renovations to convert it into office spaces with lots of natural light and cross ventilation. Law students now enjoy spending time in student
centers, cafes, and light-filled study spaces. Sert’s brutalist intensions hold true, while the renovations make it ideal for academic use.
centers, cafes, and light-filled study spaces. Sert’s brutalist intensions hold true, while the renovations make it ideal for academic use.
The Law Tower exhibits the functional use of concrete and its versatility. The color and expressive form celebrate human experience and alludes to humanistic qualities. Characteristic of other brutalist buildings, it makes a statement in the Boston skyline. Sitting on the Charles River, it is one of the first major high-rise buildings visitors see when arriving along Memorial and Storrow Drive. The building not only serves Boston University, it also marked Boston as a progressive and innovative architectural hub in the age.
Boston University Law Tower from Commonwealth Ave
In conclusion, the brutalist movement in Boston utilized concrete’s affordability and strength to create monumental structures that symbolized optimism in urban renewal and a renewed faith in government. Architects took advantage of building innovation, and the period saw structures that reached heights and scales never seen before. While critics argue that brutalist buildings can come off as austere and unwelcoming, the honestly in both materiality and form represent a push towards a more democratic society.
Sources:
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