12 Dec, 2017
Rome's Pantheon is known as one of the greatest buildings in history due to its complexity, design, and historical significance. However, there is much speculation about the original purpose, composition, and founder.
The Pantheon was first constructed during the reign of Augustus between 27BC and 14AD, and it was commissioned by Marcus Agrippa to commemorate Augustus’ victory in the Battle of Actium. In 80AD, the building was destroyed in a fire and restored under Emperor Domitian. In 110AD, it was struck by lightning, and yet again burned to the ground. Emperor Trajan set out to rebuild it, but died before the completion, passing the duty onto his willing successor and nephew, Hadrian. It was Emperor Hadrian who built the Pantheon that stands today.
Unlike other temples, there is no evidence to suggest the Pantheon has connection to a deity, and the original purpose is unclear. In this paper, I will explore two hypotheses from the countless theories speculated by historians: (1) the Pantheon was built for public use to symbolize Roman greatness, and (2) it was part of Agrippa’s private collection of buildings.
It is often believed that the Pantheon was dedicated not to a single deity, but to all gods. The word “Pantheon” itself comes from Greek origin translating to “all the gods”[2]. In addition, the design of the dome makes astrological references, and thus the connection to heaven. However, this is easily refuted. Roman Senator and historian Cassius Dio argued that the reason the building obtained this nickname was because of the several statues of gods and goddesses located in the complex of the Pantheon. In addition, Roman historian Titus Livy argued that if the Pantheon was dedicated to all gods, it would be unclear which god would be offended when the building was destroyed by fire, and the word “Pantheon” could also be used to praise a single deity.[3]
However, many historians believe that the Pantheon’s purpose wasn’t religious at all; instead, it was built to serve as a public symbol of Roman greatness and imperial divinity. When Hadrian restored the Pantheon, he made many changes from the first two models by adding steps to the front portico, an octastyle porch, a barrel-vaulted entrance, and a large circular ring supporting a rotunda. He did not use the foundation of any of the previous designs, facing the front façade north. In addition, Hadrian’s design has several allusions to cosmic and Pythagorean concerns, relating to Hadrian’s interest in the Greek world., the rotunda being one of them. Its twenty-eight ribs is a perfect Pythagorean number that relates to the moons. There are five coffered rungs, and five is a circular value and symbolizes marriage of numbers.[4] These are just a few examples of Hadrian’s countless connections to the cosmos. By using these connections, Hadrian wanted to associate himself with the idea of immortal Sun and heaven, as well as represent administrative and judicial power.[5]
The image above shows another example of Hadrian’s design connecting to the cosmos. Here, the rotunda is shown to be divided into sixteen parts, like the sixteen parts of the Etruscan sky.[6]
Not only is the Pantheon seen as a symbol of administrative power, it is also seen as a symbol of Roman greatness. Agrippa first built the structure to commemorate Augustus’ victory in the Battle Actium, and it is traditionally known to be a small, rectangular, conventional, Greek-style temple; although this too is up for debate.[7] As mentioned above, Hadrian greatly expanded the size and advancement of design tactics.
The image on the left shows Agrippa’s original plan of the Pantheon overlapping Hadrian’s design.[8]
There are many reasons why Hadrian created a more elaborately designed symbol of Rome. To start, Hadrian's interest in architecture inspired him to take advantage of the advanced Roman construction methods. In addition, many Romans at the time believed the Pantheon was burnt to the ground twice because the gods were dissatisfied with what had been created to commemorate them, so Hadrian sought to design a building that would appease the gods. Finally, while Hadrian greatly respected the military—successfully serving before becoming emperor—he was not interested in border expansion, resulting in a varying degree of disrespect. Hadrian could have built the Pantheon to show those who disagreed with his decisions that he was still committed to improving the Roman Empire.[9]
While many historians argue that the Pantheon was a public temple, there holds an equally sound argument that the Pantheon was private. It is thought that the Pantheon belonged Agrippa’s sacra privata (private belongings passed through family generations, in this case buildings) along with Agrippa’s Basilica of Neptune. These temples are less than 200-feet away, both underwent restoration by Hadrian, and have unknown original use. [10] For a building to be sacra privata, they “had to be executed in a manner as to preclude a possibility of the shrines’ being mistaken for a public temple.”[11] Generally, these temples would be passed down through the family, which is plausible because Trajan was the uncle and father figure of Hadrian.
The image above shows the location of the Basilica of Neptune (Basilica di Nettuno) where the red “A” is, taken from Google Earth
Because the Pantheon has no connection to a deity, it makes a reference rather than a statement. For public temples, the dedicated deity was common knowledge, and they had to undergo a specific ceremony to be recognized as a devotion to said deity. There is no evidence to suggest such a ceremony happened for the Pantheon, something that would have been documented. In addition, the Pantheon was not mentioned in any calendars from its time, like public temples would have been.[12]
Finally, many historians debate the purpose of the engraving of Agrippa’s name on the front of the Pantheon, and why Hadrian didn’t engrave his own name. If the Pantheon was a sacra privata, the reason Hadrian dedicated the Pantheon to Agrippa could possibly be to honor him as the founder of the building, something Hadrian was known to do in his other restorations.
In conclusion, the Pantheon is one of the world’s most well-known building; yet, it is a subject of debate for many historians, and some of these questions may never be answered. The design, purpose, function, and construction are all subjects of controversy, and it is debated as to whether the building was public and built as a symbol of Roman imperial greatness, or privately passed down through family generations.
[1] Adam Ziolkowski, Was Agrippa's Pantheon the Temple of Mars "In Campo?", (Rome: American Journal of Archaeology, 2005), pp. 261-277
[2] Dr. Paul A. Ranogajec, The Pantheon, (Khan Academy, 2017)
[3] Indra Kagis McEwen, Hadrian's Rhetoric I: The Pantheon, (Chigaco: Anthropology and Asthetics, 1993), pp. 55-66
[4] Christiane L. Joost-Gaugierm, The Iconography of Sacred Space: A Suggested Reading of the Meaning of the Roman Pantheon, (Cracow: Artibus et Historiae, 1998), pp. 21-42
[5] Christiane L. Joost-Gaugierm, The Iconography of Sacred Space: A Suggested Reading of the Meaning of the Roman Pantheon, pp. 21-42
[6] Indra Kagis McEwen, Hadrian's Rhetoric I: The Pantheon, pp 8
[7] Dr. Paul A. Ranogajec, The Pantheon, 2017
[8] Indra Kagis McEwen, Hadrian's Rhetoric I: The Pantheon, pp 4
[9] Washington University, The Pantheon, 2004
[11] Ziolkowski, Was Agrippa's Pantheon the Temple of Mars "In Campo?"), pp. 261-277
[12]Ziolkowski, Was Agrippa's Pantheon the Temple of Mars "In Campo?"), pp. 261-277